In this weeks blog my goal is to look at how agriculture (and even horticulture) became an important part of the Roman Empire and cuisine. What is special about this blog is that I actually made a Roman dessert this week. Even though the dessert was not hard to make in any sense, it was still interesting. I was thinking of maybe even taking it a step further and making an actual entree for another blog, but we will see...Roman dishes are not simple! The book I looked at this week is Cuisine & Culture: a History of Food and People by Linda Civitello. Unlike previous books that I have looked at that focus solely on the Roman Empire, Civitello's book looks at cuisines from different cultures across vast periods of time.
When it comes to the Romans, Civitello starts off with a little history. Rome was founded in 753 BC by twins Romulus and Remus. Legend has it that the two were born underneath an olive tree, which symbolized that they were descendants of a god, in this case Mars (god of war) and a Latin princess. The twins were said to have been abandoned, but saved and raised by a she-wolf. When they got older, Romulus murdered Remus in order to gain supreme control and rule over the now existent city of Rome. Unlike the story of Romulus and Remus, the actual city of Rome is not a myth and was founded on the 7 hills, near the Tiber River. The river played a crucial role in terms of defense and trade, the latter made possible due to the large salt deposits near the river. (1)
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| Romulus and Remus suckling the she-wolf. |
Seeing that the Romans lived in close proximity with the Greeks, it would only see natural for them to affect one another. One way they influenced each other was religiously. Romans borrowed the Greek gods and goddesses of Olympus and made them their own after having been introduced to them by the Greeks that lived in Sicily. After periods of wars, the Romans brought over Greek slaves who also brought the Greek cuisine along with them. They also brought with them the love of wine with the saying, "in wine there is truth!" (In vino veritas). (2)
From 264 to 146 BC, the Romans partook in the Grain Wars, better known as the Punic Wars. In these wars they fought the Phoenicians whose capital city was Carthage. The main objective for either side was to get control of the trade in the Western Mediterranean, especially the grain fields in Sicily. During the second of these wars, the Phoenician general Hannibal surprised the Romans from attacking northern Italy and in the process destroyed fields of wheat and barley, as well as orchards of apples, pears, and lemons. Subsequently the Romans attacked Carthage and burnt the entire city, spreading salt all over it so nothing can ever grow there again. As a result of these wars and the damage to the land, Roman farmers could not replant or even fix the land. Another issue was competing with slave labor that seemed impossible at the time. For these reasons they were forced to sell their land to wealthy landowners and did one of two things: moved to the countryside to work or moved to the city and lived as "poor people." Eventually the a third of the population of Rome was made up of slaves, while another quarter of it was poor. (3)
Civitello also provides her readers with information about the Roman government during the Republic, which was three-part. The first part consisted of 300 senators that would serve for the rest of their life making laws. The second part consisted of 2 "co-consuls" that commanded the army and administered the laws made by the senate. The third and final part of the Roman government consisted of the court system. The Republic ended with the murder of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC, and consequently a Civil War followed that would last for 17 years. (4)
The war ended when Caesar's adoptive son, Octavian (later renamed Augustus when he became emperor) defeated Mark Anthony and Cleopatra at a naval battle; the latter two committed suicide as a result. When Octavian, now Augustus, took control of the Empire in 27 BC he became Rome's first emperor. Through his rule he created "Roman Peace," Pax Romana, that would last 213 years. Not only did the Empire not have any enemies, but during this time it would also have colonies in three different continents. (5)
Unlike previous works I have looked at, Civitello actually distinguishes between upper-class and lover-class cuisine. She states that only ten percent of Rome's population belonged in the upper-class and were referred to as patricians. The main meals of the day for these people were breakfast and dinner. Breakfast consisted of leftovers, specifically cheese, olives, and bread. Lunch (prandia) was usually eaten at a bathhouse, if you were not invited to someone's home. Dinner (cena) could either be eaten with family alone, or with guests (convivium). During dinners the host-guest relationship was of great importance; the Romans called the host a hospes. (6)
Many mistaken the Roman convivium with the Greek symposium, but the two are quite different. For instance, the Romans did not practice any religious rituals, the Greeks did. Another difference is the type of meat they would eat; Romans ate pig, while Greeks ate lamb or mutton. The Romans during dinner, not after; and Roman men and women ate together, where as women were not allowed in the Greek symposium. (7)
Dining Al Fresco was also an important part in Roman cuisine and culture. Al fresco refers to dining in good weather that would usually take place in a garden. These gardens could be ornamental for show, or food gardens for produce. In these gardens the Romans also made sure that they grew certain plants in order to feed bees that would provide them with honey, a natural sweetener. These plants included rosemary, thyme, and roses. The gardens were decorated with urns, statues, dials, shrines, and altars. Grapevines were a natural home to birds, but also provided the garden with shade. Aqueducts were used to bring in water for fountains, pools, and ponds that housed fish and ducks. (8)
The next part Civitello discusses is the Roman cook Apicius and the first ever known cookbook. Apicius' cookbook dates back to the 1st c. AD and is called De re coquinera ("cooking matters"); consists of ten chapters. Eventually this book was translated into German and then English in 1936. From these recipes it is evident that the Romans liked sauces and meats. Common ingredients included black pepper, garum, olive oil, honey, vinegar, wine, cumin, rue, and coriander; garlic was not a part of upper-class cooking because it was known a seasoning of the poor. Vinegar was used specifically to add tang to recipes and was usually combined with honey or garum. Oregano and mint were also mildly popular ingredients. (9)
Next, Civitello discusses lower-class cuisine, in which she refers to as street food. Since the top ten percent of the population made up the upper-class, it would only seem reasonable that the lower-class was made up of the ninety percent of the population; these people were referred to as the plebeians. Since they lived in small tenements there was no availability of space for a kitchen, thus they relied on street vendors. Street vendors sold bread or grain pastes. Bread could be leavened or unleavened, or made with poppy seeds, pepper, salt, cheese, and honey. (10)
Although the Byzantine Empire was more Greek than it was Roman, I found it interesting that the Byzantines helped preserve some Roman traditions. While the Byzantine markets were full of foods that the Romans did not know of, the Byzantines managed to preserve garum which was eventually lost in the west. The Byzantines also brought many eastern foods to the west like eggplant, melons, and oranges. (11)
But what about the New World? What did the Americas have to offer to the Old World? Well for one, it was very difficult to try and convince people to eat foods that they were not familiar with from the New World; it actually took 300 YEARS for Europeans to accept New World foods. As a way of introducing New World foods, Europeans tried to make connections. For example, Columbus' son described cocoa beans as "special almonds"; the explorer Coronado called buffalo cows with horns; the potato was the earth apple; in Italy the tomato was the "golden apple" or pomodoro, because the tomatoes that were brought over were yellow. Turkey, tobacco, and beans were three things that had little trouble being accepted in the Old World. Turkey replaced birds like the swan and peacock; while beans were probably accepted because they resembled chickpeas and lentils. (12)
During the Renaissance, the Italians rediscovered anything and everything that had to do with Classical Greece and Rome. They rediscovered Roman cuisine with the discovery of some of Apicius' writings in 1457. (13) I myself rediscovered Roman cuisine this week by making a Roman dish that was usually served as a dessert, but for some reason it reminded me of breakfast...details below!
1. Linda Civitello, Cuisine & Culture: a History of Food and People (New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011), 38-39.Civitello also provides her readers with information about the Roman government during the Republic, which was three-part. The first part consisted of 300 senators that would serve for the rest of their life making laws. The second part consisted of 2 "co-consuls" that commanded the army and administered the laws made by the senate. The third and final part of the Roman government consisted of the court system. The Republic ended with the murder of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC, and consequently a Civil War followed that would last for 17 years. (4)
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| Augustus of Prima Porta. |
The war ended when Caesar's adoptive son, Octavian (later renamed Augustus when he became emperor) defeated Mark Anthony and Cleopatra at a naval battle; the latter two committed suicide as a result. When Octavian, now Augustus, took control of the Empire in 27 BC he became Rome's first emperor. Through his rule he created "Roman Peace," Pax Romana, that would last 213 years. Not only did the Empire not have any enemies, but during this time it would also have colonies in three different continents. (5)
Unlike previous works I have looked at, Civitello actually distinguishes between upper-class and lover-class cuisine. She states that only ten percent of Rome's population belonged in the upper-class and were referred to as patricians. The main meals of the day for these people were breakfast and dinner. Breakfast consisted of leftovers, specifically cheese, olives, and bread. Lunch (prandia) was usually eaten at a bathhouse, if you were not invited to someone's home. Dinner (cena) could either be eaten with family alone, or with guests (convivium). During dinners the host-guest relationship was of great importance; the Romans called the host a hospes. (6)
Many mistaken the Roman convivium with the Greek symposium, but the two are quite different. For instance, the Romans did not practice any religious rituals, the Greeks did. Another difference is the type of meat they would eat; Romans ate pig, while Greeks ate lamb or mutton. The Romans during dinner, not after; and Roman men and women ate together, where as women were not allowed in the Greek symposium. (7)
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| Roman convivium. |
Dining Al Fresco was also an important part in Roman cuisine and culture. Al fresco refers to dining in good weather that would usually take place in a garden. These gardens could be ornamental for show, or food gardens for produce. In these gardens the Romans also made sure that they grew certain plants in order to feed bees that would provide them with honey, a natural sweetener. These plants included rosemary, thyme, and roses. The gardens were decorated with urns, statues, dials, shrines, and altars. Grapevines were a natural home to birds, but also provided the garden with shade. Aqueducts were used to bring in water for fountains, pools, and ponds that housed fish and ducks. (8)
The next part Civitello discusses is the Roman cook Apicius and the first ever known cookbook. Apicius' cookbook dates back to the 1st c. AD and is called De re coquinera ("cooking matters"); consists of ten chapters. Eventually this book was translated into German and then English in 1936. From these recipes it is evident that the Romans liked sauces and meats. Common ingredients included black pepper, garum, olive oil, honey, vinegar, wine, cumin, rue, and coriander; garlic was not a part of upper-class cooking because it was known a seasoning of the poor. Vinegar was used specifically to add tang to recipes and was usually combined with honey or garum. Oregano and mint were also mildly popular ingredients. (9)
Next, Civitello discusses lower-class cuisine, in which she refers to as street food. Since the top ten percent of the population made up the upper-class, it would only seem reasonable that the lower-class was made up of the ninety percent of the population; these people were referred to as the plebeians. Since they lived in small tenements there was no availability of space for a kitchen, thus they relied on street vendors. Street vendors sold bread or grain pastes. Bread could be leavened or unleavened, or made with poppy seeds, pepper, salt, cheese, and honey. (10)
Although the Byzantine Empire was more Greek than it was Roman, I found it interesting that the Byzantines helped preserve some Roman traditions. While the Byzantine markets were full of foods that the Romans did not know of, the Byzantines managed to preserve garum which was eventually lost in the west. The Byzantines also brought many eastern foods to the west like eggplant, melons, and oranges. (11)
But what about the New World? What did the Americas have to offer to the Old World? Well for one, it was very difficult to try and convince people to eat foods that they were not familiar with from the New World; it actually took 300 YEARS for Europeans to accept New World foods. As a way of introducing New World foods, Europeans tried to make connections. For example, Columbus' son described cocoa beans as "special almonds"; the explorer Coronado called buffalo cows with horns; the potato was the earth apple; in Italy the tomato was the "golden apple" or pomodoro, because the tomatoes that were brought over were yellow. Turkey, tobacco, and beans were three things that had little trouble being accepted in the Old World. Turkey replaced birds like the swan and peacock; while beans were probably accepted because they resembled chickpeas and lentils. (12)
During the Renaissance, the Italians rediscovered anything and everything that had to do with Classical Greece and Rome. They rediscovered Roman cuisine with the discovery of some of Apicius' writings in 1457. (13) I myself rediscovered Roman cuisine this week by making a Roman dish that was usually served as a dessert, but for some reason it reminded me of breakfast...details below!
Honey Frittata (from Apicius)
Ingredients:
-4 eggs
-1 cup milk
-2 TBS olive oil
-3 TBS honey
-pepper (or poppy seeds) to taste
Mix the 4 eggs with the milk and oil until all three are diluted into one substance. Take a shallow pan and add some oil to it. Let the oil heat until it boils and then add the mixture. Allow the mix to cook on one side, not two, and then flip onto a plate. Drizzle with honey and sprinkle with pepper or poppy seeds. Serves up to four people! (14)
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| Top: eggs, milk, and oil before mixed. Bottom: eggs, milk, and oil after mixed. |
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| Mixture in the frying pan. |
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| Final product, drizzled with honey and sprinkled with pepper. |
While making this dessert, I realized how simple and easy it was. The only thing I did not like was how my entire house smelled like fried oil after wards, but that went away quickly anyway. I did not know what to expect when making the frittata, but once I poured it into the pan it automatically reminded me of an omelet...a very simple omelet anyway. When the dessert was finished, I thought maybe I had over cooked it, but as I bit into it I realized that the burnt top made up for the under cooked bottom! This dish reminded me more of breakfast than of dessert not only because of the eggs, but also because of the honey; it reminded me of maple syrup.
This blog may have come to an end, but my discussion of Roman gardens and cuisine has not! Next week I plan on finding more information on this topic and maybe looking at Medieval gardens and cuisine a bit more. I am having some trouble expanding my knowledge on the topic, but hopefully I will find some new things to discuss and maybe I will make another Roman dish.
2. Ibid., 39.
3. Ibid., 39-40.
4. Ibid., 40.
5. Ibid., 40-43.
6. Ibid., 43.
7. Ibid., 43.
8. Ibid., 44-47.
9. Ibid., 47-50.
10. Ibid., 52.
11. Ibid., 65-66.
12. Ibid., 136-137.
13. Ibid., 141.
14. Ilaria Giacosa, A Taste of Ancient Rome (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 162.
4. Ibid., 40.
5. Ibid., 40-43.
6. Ibid., 43.
7. Ibid., 43.
8. Ibid., 44-47.
9. Ibid., 47-50.
10. Ibid., 52.
11. Ibid., 65-66.
12. Ibid., 136-137.
13. Ibid., 141.
14. Ilaria Giacosa, A Taste of Ancient Rome (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 162.
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